The Ohio Electronics Textbook (v.001)

This textbook is a work in progress. If you have any ideas on how to improve it, feel free to submit them to the email list.

Search Reset Clear Selection

Collapse All Expand All Level - Level +

• Table of Contents
  • 1: About
    • 1: Developmental Editor
    • 2: Copyright Information
      • 1: Lessons in Electric Circuits
      • 2: United Stated Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series
      • 3: Developmental Editing
    • 3: Contact
  • 2: Introduction
    • 1: Safety
    • 2: The Ohio Electronics Education Calculator
    • 3: Units of Measurement and Numeric Notations
    • 4: Electrical Components
      • 1: Resistors
        • 1: Composition of Resistors
        • 2: Fixed and Variable Resistors
        • 3: Wattage Rating
        • 4: Standard Color Code System
        • 5: Simplifying the Color Code
        • 6: Fifth Reliability Band for Military Specifications
        • 7: Incandescent Lamps [TODO]
      • 2: Inductors [TODO]
      • 3: Capacitors
        • 1: Fixed Capacitor
        • 2: Variable Capacitor
        • 3: Color Codes for Capacitors
    • 5: Electrical Tools
      • 1: Circuit Board Holder and Magnifier
      • 2: High-Intensity Light
      • 3: Pana Vise
      • 4: Hand Tools
        • 1: Pliers
        • 2: Tweezers
        • 3: Dental Tools
        • 4: Eyelet-Setting Tools
      • 5: Miscellaneous Tools and Supplies
      • 6: Safety Equipment
      • 7: Stereoscopic-Zoom Microscope
      • 8: Toolbox
      • 9: Replacement Parts
    • 6: Workstation
      • 1: Lighting
      • 2: Ventilation
      • 3: Noise Considerations
      • 4: Work Surface Area
      • 5: Electrostatic Discharge Sensitive Device (ESDS) Capability
      • 6: Power Requirements
  • 3: DC
    • 1: Chapter 1: Matter, Energy, and Electricity
      • 1: Introduction
        • 1: Matter, Energy, and Electricity
      • 2: Matter
        • 1: Elements and Compounds
        • 2: Molecules
        • 3: Atoms
          • 1: Energy Levels
          • 2: Shells and Subshells
          • 3: Valence
          • 4: Ionization
      • 3: Conductors, Semiconductors, and Insulators
      • 4: Electrostatics
        • 1: Static Electricity
          • 1: Nature of Charges
          • 2: Charged Bodies
          • 3: Coulomb’s Law of Charges
          • 4: Electric Fields
      • 5: Electrical Energy
        • 1: Energy
          • 1: Electrical Charges
        • 2: How Voltage Is Produced
          • 1: Voltage Produced by Friction
          • 2: Voltage Produced by Pressure
          • 3: Voltage Produced by Heat
          • 4: Voltage Produced by Light
          • 5: Voltage Produced by Chemical Action
          • 6: Voltage Produced by Magnetism
        • 3: Electric Current
          • 1: Random Drift
          • 2: Directed Drift
          • 3: Magnitude of Current Flow
          • 4: Measurement of Current
        • 4: Electrical Resistance
          • 1: Factors That Affect Resistance
        • 5: Conductance
    • 2: Chapter 2: Test Equipment (DC Mode)
      • 1: Circuit Measurement
      • 2: Analog Meters in DC Mode
        • 1: In-Circuit Meters
        • 2: Out-Of-Circuit Meters
      • 3: Basic Meter Movements
        • 1: Compass and Conducting Wire
        • 2: Permanent-Magnet Moving-Coil Movement
        • 3: Compass and Alternating Current
        • 4: Damping
        • 5: Indicating Alternating Current
        • 6: Other Meter Movements
        • 7: Electrodynamic Meter Movement
        • 8: Moving-Vane Meter Movements
        • 9: Hot-Wire and Thermocouple Meter Movements
        • 10: Ammeters
        • 11: Ammeter Connected in Series
        • 12: Effect on Circuit Being Measured
        • 13: Ammeter Sensitivity
        • 14: Ammeter Ranges
          • 1: Range Selection
        • 15: Ammeter Safety Precautions
        • 16: Voltmeters
        • 17: Voltmeters Connected in Parallel
        • 18: Loading Effect
        • 19: Making a Voltmeter From a Current Sensitive Meter Movement
        • 20: Sensitivity of Voltmeters
        • 21: Ranges
        • 22: Electrostatic Meter Movement
        • 23: Voltmeter Safety Precautions
        • 24: Ohmmeters
        • 25: Using the Ohmmeter
        • 26: Ohmmeter Ranges
        • 27: Shunt Ohmmeter
        • 28: Ohmmeter Safety Precautions
        • 29: Multimeter
        • 30: Multimeter Controls
        • 31: Multimeter Scales
        • 32: Parallax Error
        • 33: Multimeter Safety Precautions
      • 4: Analog Multimeters in DC Mode
        • 1: Measuring Resistance, Voltage, and Current With a VOM
          • 1: Measuring Resistance
          • 2: Measuring DC Voltages
          • 3: Measuring Output Voltages
          • 4: Measuring Current
          • 5: Accessories
        • 2: Digital Multimeters in DC Mode
          • 1: Operating Features
          • 2: Internal Battery Models
          • 3: Overload Protection
          • 4: Basic Digital Multimeter Measurement
          • 5: Block Diagram Analysis
          • 6: Accessories
      • 5: Oscilloscopes in DC Mode
    • 3: Chapter 3: Batteries
      • 1: Introduction
        • 1: The Cell
          • 1: Electrodes
          • 2: Electrolyte
          • 3: Container
          • 4: Primary Cell
          • 5: Secondary Cell
      • 2: Electrochemical Action
        • 1: Primary Cell Chemistry
        • 2: Secondary Cell Chemistry
        • 3: Polarization of the Cell
        • 4: Local Action
      • 3: Types of Cells
        • 1: Primary Dry Cell
          • 1: Construction of a Dry Cell
          • 2: Mercuric-Oxide Zinc Cell
          • 3: Other Types of Cells
        • 2: Secondary Wet Cells
          • 1: Lead-Acid Cell
          • 2: Nickel-Cadmium Cell
          • 3: Silver-Zinc Cells
          • 4: Silver-Cadmium Cell
      • 4: Batteries
        • 1: The Basic Electric Circuit
        • 2: Schematic Representation
        • 3: Combining Cells
          • 1: Series-Connected Cells
          • 2: Parallel-Connected Cells
          • 3: Series-Parallel-Connected Cells
        • 4: Battery Construction
        • 5: Battery Maintenance
          • 1: Specific Gravity
          • 2: The Hydrometer
          • 3: Other Maintenance
          • 4: Safety Precautions With Batteries
        • 6: Capacity and Rating of Batteries
        • 7: Battery Charging
          • 1: Initial Charge
          • 2: Normal Charge
          • 3: Equalizing Charge
          • 4: Floating Charge
          • 5: Fast Charge
          • 6: Charging Rate
          • 7: Charging Time
          • 8: Gassing
    • 4: Chapter 4: Switches
      • 1: Switch Types
      • 2: Switch Contact Design
      • 3: Contact "Normal" State and Make/Break Sequence
      • 4: Contact "Bounce"
    • 5: Chapter 5: Ohm’s Law and DC Power
      • 1: Ohm’s Law
        • 1: Application of Ohm’s Law
        • 2: Graphical Analysis of the Basic Circuit
      • 2: Power
        • 1: Power Rating
        • 2: Power Conversion and Efficiency
    • 6: Chapter 6: Series DC Circuits
      • 1: Series Circuit Characteristics
        • 1: Resistance in a Series Circuit
        • 2: Current in a Series Circuit
        • 3: Voltage in a Series Circuit
        • 4: Power in a Series Circuit
      • 2: Summary of Characteristics
        • 1: Rules for Series DC Circuits
      • 3: Series Circuit Analysis
      • 4: Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
        • 1: Polarity of Voltage
        • 2: Application of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
          • 1: Series Aiding and Opposing Sources
      • 5: Circuit Terms and Characteristics
        • 1: Reference Point
        • 2: Open Circuit
        • 3: Short Circuit
        • 4: Source Resistance
        • 5: Power Transfer and Efficiency
    • 7: Chapter 7: Parallel DC Circuits
      • 1: Parallel Circuit Characteristics
        • 1: Voltage in a Parallel Circuit
        • 2: Current in a Parallel Circuit
        • 3: Resistance in a Parallel Circuit
        • 4: Power in a Parallel Circuit
        • 5: Equivalent Circuits
        • 6: Rules for Parallel DC Circuits
      • 2: Solving Parallel Circuit Problems
    • 8: Chapter 8: Series-Parallel DC Circuits
      • 1: Solving Combination-Circuit Problems
        • 1: Practice Circuit Problem
      • 2: Redrawing Circuits for Clarity
        • 1: Redrawing a Complex Circuit
      • 3: Effects of Open and Short Circuits
      • 4: Voltage Dividers
        • 1: Multiple-Load Voltage Dividers
        • 2: Power in the Voltage Divider
        • 3: Voltage Divider With Positive and Negative Voltage Requirements
        • 4: Practical Application of Voltage Dividers
    • 9: Chapter 9: Basic DC Circuit Analysis
      • 1: What is Network Analysis?
      • 2: Branch Current Method
      • 3: Mesh Current Methods
        • 1: Conventional Method
        • 2: Inspection Method
      • 4: Node Voltage Method
      • 5: Introduction to Network Theorems
        • 1: Millman’s Theorem
        • 2: Superposition Theorem
          • 1: Additional Example Problems
        • 3: Thevenin’s Theorem
          • 1: Additional Example Problems
        • 4: Norton’s Theorem
          • 1: Additional Example Problems
        • 5: Thevenin-Norton Equivalencies
        • 6: Millman’s Theorem Revisited
        • 7: Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
          • 1: Additional Example Problems
      • 6: Δ-Y and Y-Δ Conversions
        • 1: Additional Example Problems
      • 7: Bibliography
    • 10: Chapter 10: Magnetism and Electromagnetism
      • 1: Magnetism
        • 1: Magnetic Materials
          • 1: Ferromagnetic Materials
          • 2: Natural Magnets
          • 3: Artificial Magnets
        • 2: Magnetic Poles
          • 1: Law of Magnetic Poles
          • 2: The Earth’s Magnetic Poles
        • 3: Theories of Magnetism
          • 1: Weber’s Theory
          • 2: Domain Theory
        • 4: Magnetic Fields
          • 1: Lines of Force
        • 5: Magnetic Effects
          • 1: Magnetic Induction
          • 2: Magnetic Shielding
        • 6: Magnetic Shapes
        • 7: Care of Magnets
        • 8: Voltage Generation With Magnetism
      • 2: Electromagnetism
      • 3: Magnetic Fields
        • 1: Magnetic Field Around a Current-Carrying Conductor
        • 2: Magnetic Field of a Coil
          • 1: Polarity of an Electromagnetic Coil
          • 2: Strength of an Electromagnetic Field
          • 3: Losses in an Electromagnetic Field
    • 11: Chapter 11: Inductors Under DC Conditions
      • 1: Inductance
      • 2: Characteristics of Inductance
        • 1: Electromotive Force (EMF)
        • 2: Self-Inductance
          • 1: Factors Affecting Coil Inductance
        • 3: Unit of Inductance
        • 4: Growth and Decay of Current in an LR Series Circuit
          • 1: L/R Time Constant
        • 5: Power Loss in an Inductor
        • 6: Mutual Inductance
        • 7: Factors Affecting Mutual Inductance
        • 8: Series Inductors Without Magnetic Coupling
        • 9: Series Inductors With Magnetic Coupling
        • 10: Parallel Inductors Without Coupling
      • 3: Electromechanical Relays Under DC Conditions
        • 1: Relay Construction
    • 12: Chapter 12: Capacitors Under DC Conditions
      • 1: Capacitance
      • 2: The Electrostatic Field
        • 1: The Simple Capacitor
        • 2: The Farad
        • 3: Factors Affecting the Value of Capacitance
      • 3: Voltage Rating of Capacitors
      • 4: Capacitor Losses
      • 5: Charging and Discharging a Capacitor
        • 1: Charging
        • 2: Discharging
      • 6: Charge and Discharge of an RC Series Circuit
        • 1: Charge Cycle
        • 2: Discharge Cycle
      • 7: RC Time Constant
      • 8: Universal Time Constant Chart
      • 9: Capacitors in Series and Parallel
        • 1: Capacitors in Series
        • 2: Capacitors in Parallel
  • 4: AC
    • 1: Chapter 13: AC Sine Wave Fundamentals
      • 1: Concepts of Alternating Current
      • 2: AC and DC
      • 3: Disadvantages of DC Compared to AC
      • 4: Voltage Waveforms
      • 5: Basic AC Generation
        • 1: Cycle
        • 2: Frequency
        • 3: Period
        • 4: Wavelength
      • 6: Alternating Current Values
        • 1: Peak and Peak-To-Peak Values
        • 2: Instantaneous Value
        • 3: Average Value
        • 4: Effective Value of a Sine Wave
        • 5: Sine Waves in Phase
        • 6: Sine Waves Out of Phase
      • 7: Ohm’s Law in AC Circuits
    • 2: Chapter 14: Test Equipment (AC Mode)
    • 3: Chapter 15: Complex Numbers and Phasors
      • 1: Introduction
      • 2: Vectors and AC Waveforms
      • 3: Simple Vector Addition
      • 4: Complex Vector Addition
      • 5: Polar and rectangular notation
      • 6: Complex number arithmetic
      • 7: More on AC "Polarity"
      • 8: Some Examples With AC Circuits
    • 4: Chapter 16: Response of Resistors, Inductors, and Capacitors to Sine Waves
      • 1: Resistors and Alternating Current
        • 1: AC Resistor Circuits
      • 2: Inductors and Alternating Current
        • 1: Inductive Reactance
        • 2: AC Inductor Circuits
      • 3: Capacitors and Alternating Current
        • 1: Capacitive Reactance
        • 2: AC Capacitor Circuits
    • 5: Chapter 17: Series AC Circuits
      • 1: Series Resistor-Inductor Circuits
      • 2: Series Resistor-Capacitor Circuits
      • 3: Series R, L, and C Circuits
        • 1: LIEC (todo)
        • 2: Reactance, Impedance in Series RLC Circuits (Navy,todo)
          • 1: Reactance
          • 2: Impedance
          • 3: Series RLC Circuit Example
        • 3: Ohms Law for AC
    • 6: Chapter 18: Parallel AC Circuits
      • 1: Parallel Resistor-Inductor Circuits
      • 2: Parallel Resistor-Capacitor Circuits
      • 3: Parallel R, L, and C Circuits
        • 1: Parallel RLC Circuits Example
    • 7: Chapter 19: Series-Parallel AC Circuits
      • 1: Series-Parallel R, L, and C Circuits
    • 8: Chapter 20: Basic AC Circuit Analysis
    • 9: Chapter 21: AC Power
      • 1: LEIC (todo)
        • 1: Power in Resistive and Reactive AC Circuits
        • 2: True, Reactive, and Apparent Power
        • 3: Calculating Power Factor
        • 4: Practical Power Factor Correction
      • 2: Navy (todo)
        • 1: Power in AC Circuits
          • 1: Calculating True Power in AC Circuits
          • 2: Calculating Reactive Power in AC Circuits
          • 3: Calculating Apparent Power in AC Circuits.
          • 4: Power Factor
          • 5: Power Factor Correction
    • 10: Chapter 22: Resonance
      • 1: LIEC (todo)
        • 1: An Electric Pendulum
        • 2: Simple Parallel (Tank Circuit) Resonance
        • 3: Simple Series Resonance
        • 4: Applications of Resonance
        • 5: Resonance in Series-Parallel Circuits
        • 6: Q and Bandwidth of a Resonant Circuit
          • 1: Series resonant circuits
          • 2: Parallel Resonant Circuits
      • 2: Navy (todo)
        • 1: Resonance
          • 1: Resonant Frequency
        • 2: Resonant Circuits
          • 1: The Ideal Series-Resonant Circuit
          • 2: Parallel Resonance
        • 3: Bandwidth
    • 11: Chapter 23: Passive Filters
      • 1: LIEC (todo)
      • 2: What is a Filter?
        • 1: Low-Pass Filters
        • 2: High-Pass Filters
        • 3: Band-Pass Filters
        • 4: Band-Stop Filters
        • 5: Resonant Filters
        • 6: Summary
      • 3: Navy (todo)
        • 1: Resonant Circuits as Filter Circuits
          • 1: The Idea of "Q"
          • 2: Q Is a Ratio
          • 3: The Q of a Coil
          • 4: Application of Q
          • 5: Q Relationships in Series Circuits
          • 6: Q Relationships in a Parallel-Resonant Circuit
          • 7: Summary of Q
        • 2: Filters
          • 1: Low-Pass Filter
          • 2: High-Pass Filter
          • 3: Resonant Circuits as Filters
          • 4: Multisection Filters
        • 3: Safety Precautions
    • 12: Chapter 24: Pulse Response of RL and RC Circuits
    • 13: Chapter 25: Polyphase AC Circuits
      • 1: Single-Phase Power Systems
      • 2: Three-Phase Power Systems
      • 3: Phase Rotation
      • 4: Polyphase Motor Design
      • 5: Three-Phase Y and Delta Configurations
      • 6: Three-Phase Transformer Circuits
      • 7: Harmonics in Polyphase Power Systems
      • 8: Harmonic Phase Sequences
      • 9: Electromechanical Relays Under AC Conditions
        • 1: Contactors
        • 2: Time-Delay Relays
        • 3: Protective Relays
    • 14: Chapter 26: Transformers
      • 1: Transformers
      • 2: Basic Operation of a Transformer
      • 3: The Components of a Transformer
        • 1: Core Characteristics
          • 1: Hollow-Core Transformers
          • 2: Shell-Core Transformers
        • 2: Transformer Windings
      • 4: Schematic Symbols for Transformers
      • 5: How a Transformer Works
        • 1: Producing a Counter Emf
        • 2: Inducing a Voltage in the Secondary
        • 3: Primary and Secondary Phase Relationship
        • 4: Coefficient of Coupling
        • 5: Turns and Voltage Ratios
        • 6: Effect of a Load
        • 7: Mutual Flux
        • 8: Turns and Current Ratios
        • 9: Power Relationship Between Primary and Secondary Windings
        • 10: Transformer Losses
          • 1: Copper Loss
          • 2: Eddy-Current Loss
          • 3: Hysteresis Loss
        • 11: Transformer Efficiency
        • 12: Transformer Ratings
      • 6: Types and Applications of Transformers
        • 1: Power Transformers
        • 2: Autotransformers
        • 3: Audio-Frequency Transformers
        • 4: Radio-Frequency Transformers
        • 5: Impedance-Matching Transformers
      • 7: Safety
        • 1: Effects of Current on the Body
        • 2: Electric Shock
        • 3: Rescue and Care of Shock Victims
        • 4: Safety Precautions for Preventing Electric Shock
  • 5: Electronics
    • 1: Chapter 27: Semiconductor Theory and Diodes
      • 1: Semiconductor Theory
        • 1: Atomic Structure
        • 2: Energy Bands
        • 3: Covalent Bonding
        • 4: Conduction Process
        • 5: Doping Process
          • 1: N-Type Semiconductor
          • 2: P-Type Semiconductor
      • 2: Semiconductor Diode
        • 1: Construction
        • 2: Pn Junction Operation
          • 1: Current Flow in the N-Type Material
          • 2: Current Flow in the P-Type Material
          • 3: Junction Barrier
          • 4: Summary
        • 3: Diode Characteristics
        • 4: Diode Identification
        • 5: Zener Diodes
        • 6: Light-Emitting Diodes
        • 7: Electrostatic Discharge Sensitive (ESDS) Care
        • 8: Semiconductor Substitution Testing Method
        • 9: Diode Maintenance
        • 10: Testing Diodes
          • 1: Testing Diodes with an Ohmmeter
          • 2: Testing Diodes with Oscilloscopes
        • 11: Diode Testing
        • 12: Diode Testers
          • 1: Rf Diode Test
          • 2: Switching Diode Test
        • 13: Diode Characteristic Graphical Display
          • 1: Reverse Voltage-Current Analysis
          • 2: Zener Diode Test
        • 14: Static Resistance Measurements
    • 2: Chapter 28: Diode Circuits
      • 1: Half-Wave Rectifier
      • 2: The Rectifier
        • 1: The Half-Wave Rectifier
          • 1: RMS, Peak, and Average Values
          • 2: Ripple Frequency
        • 2: The Conventional Full-Wave Rectifier
        • 3: A Practical Full-Wave Rectifier
        • 4: The Bridge Rectifier
      • 3: Limiters (Clippers)
        • 1: Series Limiters
          • 1: Series-Positive Limiter
          • 2: Series-Negative Limiter
        • 2: Parallel Limiters
          • 1: Parallel-Positive Limiter.
          • 2: Parallel-Negative Limiter
        • 3: Dual-Diode Limiter
      • 4: Clampers
        • 1: Series RC Circuits
        • 2: Positive-Diode Clampers
          • 1: Positive-Diode Clamper With Bias
          • 2: Positive-Diode Clamper With Negative Bias
        • 3: Negative-Diode Clampers
          • 1: Negative-Diode Clamper With Negative Bias
          • 2: Negative Clamper With Positive Bias
      • 5: Voltage Multipliers
      • 6: Diode Switch
    • 3: Chapter 29: Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
      • 1: Introduction to Transistors
      • 2: Transistor Fundamentals
        • 1: Classification
        • 2: Construction
        • 3: Transistor Theory
          • 1: NPN Transistor Operation
          • 2: PNP Transistor Operation
      • 3: Transistor Specifications
      • 4: Transistor Identification
      • 5: Transistor Maintenance
      • 6: Precautions
      • 7: Lead Identification
      • 8: Transistor Testing
        • 1: Testing Transistors with an Ohmmeter
          • 1: Transistor Gain Test
          • 2: Transistor Junction Resistance Test
      • 9: Testing Transistors
        • 1: Power Supply Checks
        • 2: Visual Inspection
        • 3: Transistor Checks
        • 4: Voltage Checks
        • 5: Resistance Checks
      • 10: Testing Semiconductors
        • 1: Transistor Testing
          • 1: Resistance Test
          • 2: Transistor Testers
    • 4: Chapter 30: BJT Amplifiers
      • 1: The Basic Transistor Amplifier
        • 1: Types of Bias
          • 1: Base-Current Bias (Fixed Bias)
          • 2: Self-Bias
          • 3: Combination Bias
        • 2: Amplifier Classes of Operation
          • 1: Class A Amplifier Operation
          • 2: Class AB Amplifier Operation
          • 3: Class B Amplifier Operation
          • 4: Class C Amplifier Operation
        • 3: Transistor Configurations
          • 1: Common Emitter
          • 2: Common Base
          • 3: Common Collector
      • 2: Introduction
        • 1: What is Amplification?
        • 2: Uses of Amplification
      • 3: Classification of Amplifiers
        • 1: Voltage Amplifiers and Power Amplifiers
        • 2: Frequency Response of Amplifiers
      • 4: Transistor Amplifiers
        • 1: Amplifier Classes of Operation
          • 1: Class A Operation
          • 2: Class AB Operation
          • 3: Class B Operation
          • 4: Class C Operation
        • 2: Amplifier Coupling
          • 1: Direct Coupling
          • 2: RC Coupling
          • 3: Impedance Coupling
          • 4: Transformer Coupling
        • 3: Impedance Considerations for Amplifiers
          • 1: Impedance Characteristics of Amplifier Configurations
        • 4: Amplifier Feedback
          • 1: Positive Feedback
          • 2: Negative Feedback
    • 5: Chapter 31: Audio and Radio Frequency Amplifiers
      • 1: Audio Amplifiers
        • 1: Single-Stage Audio Amplifiers
        • 2: Phase Splitters
        • 3: Push-Pull Amplifiers
      • 2: Amplifier Frequency Response
        • 1: Bandwidth of an Amplifier
        • 2: Reading Amplifier Frequency-Response Curves
        • 3: Factors Affecting Frequency Response of an Amplifier
      • 3: Radio-Frequency Amplifiers
        • 1: Amplifier Input/Output Impedance and Gain
        • 2: Frequency-Determining Network for an RF Amplifier
        • 3: RF Amplifier Coupling
        • 4: Compensation of RF Amplifiers
          • 1: Transformers in RF Amplifiers
          • 2: Neutralization of RF Amplifiers
        • 5: Typical RF Amplifier Circuits
    • 6: Chapter 32: Field Effect Transistors (FET)
      • 1: JFET
      • 2: MOSFET
    • 7: Chapter 33: FET Amplifiers
    • 8: Chapter 34: Operational Amplifiers
      • 1: Introduction
      • 2: Differential Amplifiers
        • 1: Basic Differential Amplifier Circuit
        • 2: The Two-Input, Single-Output, Difference Amplifier
        • 3: Typical Differential Amplifier Circuit
        • 4: Single-Input, Single-Output, Differential Amplifier
        • 5: Single-Input, Differential-Output, Differential Amplifier
        • 6: Differential-Input, Differential-Output, Differential Amplifier
      • 3: Operational Amplifiers
        • 1: Characteristics of an Operational Amplifier
        • 2: Block Diagram of an Operational Amplifier
        • 3: Closed-Loop Operation of an Operational Amplifier
          • 1: Inverting Configuration
          • 2: Noninverting Configuration
        • 4: Bandwidth Limitations
        • 5: Applications of Operational Amplifiers
          • 1: Summing Amplifier (Adder)
          • 2: Difference Amplifier (Subtractor)
    • 9: Chapter 35: Active Filters
    • 10: Chapter 36: Oscillators
      • 1: Introduction
        • 1: Classification of Oscillators (Generators)
          • 1: Sinusoidal Oscillators
          • 2: Nonsinusoidal Oscillators
        • 2: The Basic Oscillator
        • 3: Sine-Wave Oscillator
          • 1: RC Network
          • 2: LC Network
          • 3: Crystals
        • 4: Solid-State LC Oscillators
      • 2: Feedback
        • 1: Types of Feedback
        • 2: Configuration of Oscillators
        • 3: Common-Collector Configuration
        • 4: Common-Base Configuration
        • 5: Common-Emitter Configuration
      • 3: Oscillator Circuits
        • 1: Frequency Stability
        • 2: Amplitude Stability
        • 3: Armstrong Oscillator
        • 4: Hartley Oscillator
          • 1: Series-Fed Hartley Oscillator
          • 2: Shunt-Fed Hartley Oscillator
        • 5: Colpitts Oscillator
        • 6: Resistive-Capacitive (RC) Feedback Oscillator
          • 1: Phase-Shift Oscillators
        • 7: Crystal Oscillators
          • 1: Crystals as Tuned Circuits
          • 2: Crystal-Controlled Armstrong Oscillator
          • 3: Crystal-Controlled Pierce Oscillator
        • 8: Pulsed Oscillators
          • 1: Frequency of a Pulsed Oscillator
      • 4: Harmonics
        • 1: Requency Multiplication
          • 1: Buffer Amplifier
    • 11: Chapter 37: Filtered and Regulated Power Supplies
      • 1: The Basic Power Supply
        • 1: The Power Transformer
        • 2: Filters
          • 1: The Capacitor Filter
          • 2: LC Choke-Input Filter
          • 3: Resistor-Capacitor (RC) Filters
          • 4: Failure Analysis of the Resistor-Capacitor (RC) Filter
          • 5: LC Capacitor-Input Filter
        • 3: Voltage Regulation
        • 4: Load Regulation
        • 5: Regulators
          • 1: Series and Shunt Voltage Regulators
          • 2: Current Regulators
          • 3: Short Circuit Protection (todo:should this section be moved to the series regulator section?)
      • 2: Troubleshooting Power Supplies
        • 1: Testing
          • 1: Component Problems
    • 12: Chapter 38: Miscellaneous Semiconductor Devices
      • 1: Introduction
      • 2: Diodes
        • 1: The Tunnel Diode
        • 2: Varactor
        • 3: Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
        • 4: Triac
          • 1: Solid-State Relays
        • 5: IGBT [TODO]
        • 6: Optoelectronic Devices
      • 3: Transistors
        • 1: The Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
  • 6: Digital
    • 1: Chapter 39: Numeration Systems
      • 1: Numbers and Symbols
      • 2: Systems of Numeration
      • 3: Decimal Versus Binary Numeration
      • 4: Decimal and Binary Numerals
      • 5: The Number Of Patterns That Can Be Formed By N Bits
      • 6: Hexadecimal Numerals
      • 7: Octal and Hexadecimal Numeration
      • 8: Octal and Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion
      • 9: Conversion From Decimal Numeration
    • 2: Chapter 40: Binary Arithmetic
      • 1: Numbers Versus Numeration
      • 2: Binary Addition
      • 3: Negative Binary Numbers
      • 4: Subtraction
      • 5: Overflow
      • 6: Bit Groupings
    • 3: Chapter 41: Logic Gates
      • 1: Digital Signals and Gates
      • 2: The NOT Gate
      • 3: The "Buffer" Gate
      • 4: Multiple-Input Gates
        • 1: The AND Gate
        • 2: The NAND Gate
        • 3: The OR Gate
        • 4: The NOR Gate
        • 5: The Negative-AND Gate
        • 6: The Negative-OR Gate
        • 7: The Exclusive-OR Gate
        • 8: The Exclusive-NOR Gate
      • 5: TTL NAND and AND Gates
      • 6: TTL NOR and OR Gates
      • 7: CMOS Gate Circuitry
      • 8: Special-Output Gates
      • 9: Gate Universality
        • 1: Constructing the NOT Function
        • 2: Constructing the "Buffer" Function
        • 3: Constructing the AND Function
        • 4: Constructing the NAND Function
        • 5: Constructing the OR Function
        • 6: Constructing the NOR Function
      • 10: Logic Signal Voltage Levels
      • 11: Dip Gate Packaging
      • 12: Contributors
    • 4: Chapter 42: Boolean Algebra
      • 1: Introduction
      • 2: Boolean Arithmetic
      • 3: Boolean Algebraic Identities
      • 4: Boolean Algebraic Properties
      • 5: Boolean Rules for Simplification
      • 6: Circuit Simplification Examples
      • 7: The Exclusive-OR Function
      • 8: DeMorgan’s Theorems
      • 9: Converting Truth Tables Into Boolean Expressions
        • 1: "2 out of 3" Sensors Controller
        • 2: Sensor Disagreement Controller
    • 5: Chapter 43: Karnaugh Mapping
      • 1: Introduction
      • 2: Venn Diagrams and Sets
      • 3: Boolean Relationships on Venn Diagrams
        • 1: Development of a Boolean expression involving a complemented variable
      • 4: Making a Venn Diagram Look Like a Karnaugh Map
      • 5: Karnaugh Maps, Truth Tables, and Boolean Expressions
      • 6: Logic Simplification With Karnaugh Maps
      • 7: Larger 4-Variable Karnaugh Maps
      • 8: Minterm vs Maxterm Solution
        • 1: Replacing AND-OR logic with NAND-NAND logic
      • 9: Σ (sum) and Π (Product) Notation
      • 10: Don’t Care Cells in the Karnaugh Map
      • 11: Larger 5 & 6-Variable Karnaugh Maps
    • 6: Chapter 44: Combinational Logic Functions
      • 1: Introduction
      • 2: A Half-Adder
      • 3: A Full-Adder
      • 4: Decoder
      • 5: Encoder
      • 6: Demultiplexers
      • 7: Multiplexers
      • 8: Using Multiple Combinational Circuits
    • 7: Chapter 45: Multivibrators
      • 1: Digital Logic With Feedback
      • 2: The S-R Latch
      • 3: The Gated S-R Latch
      • 4: The D Latch
      • 5: Edge-Triggered Latches: Flip-Flops
      • 6: The J-K Flip-Flop
      • 7: Asynchronous Flip-Flop Inputs
      • 8: Monostable Multivibrators
    • 8: Chapter 46: Counters
      • 1: Binary Count Sequence
      • 2: Asynchronous Counters
      • 3: Synchronous Counters
      • 4: Counter Modulus
      • 5: Finite State Machines
      • 6: Contributors
      • 7: Bibliography
    • 9: Chapter 47: Shift Registers
      • 1: Introduction
      • 2: Serial-In/Serial-Out Shift Register
        • 1: Serial-In/Serial-Out Devices
      • 3: Parallel-In, Serial-Out Shift Register
        • 1: Parallel-In/Serial-Out Devices
        • 2: Practical Applications
      • 4: Serial-In, Parallel-Out Shift Register
        • 1: Serial-In/ Parallel-Out Devices
        • 2: Practical Applications
      • 5: Parallel-In, Parallel-Out, Universal Shift Register
        • 1: Parallel-In/Parallel-Out and Universal Devices
        • 2: Practical Applications
      • 6: Ring Counters
        • 1: Johnson Counters
          • 1: Johnson Counter Devices
          • 2: Practical Applications
      • 7: References
    • 10: Chapter 48: Programmable Logic (TODO)
    • 11: Chapter 49: Digital-Analog Conversion
      • 1: Introduction
      • 2: The R/2ⁿR DAC
      • 3: The R/2R DAC
      • 4: Flash ADC
      • 5: Digital Ramp ADC
      • 6: Successive Approximation ADC
      • 7: Tracking ADC
      • 8: Slope (Integrating) ADC
      • 9: Delta-Sigma (ΔΣ) ADC
      • 10: Practical Considerations of ADC Circuits
    • 12: Chapter 50: Digital Communication
      • 1: Introduction
      • 2: Networks and busses
        • 1: Short-Distance Busses
        • 2: Extended-Distance Networks
      • 3: Data Flow
      • 4: Electrical Signal Types
      • 5: Optical Data Communication
      • 6: Network Topology
        • 1: Point-To-Point
        • 2: Bus
        • 3: Star
        • 4: Ring
      • 7: Network Protocols
      • 8: Practical considerations
    • 13: Chapter 51: Digital Storage (Memory)
      • 1: Why Digital?
      • 2: Digital Memory Terms and Concepts
      • 3: Modern Nonmechanical Memory
      • 4: Historical, Nonmechanical Memory Technologies
      • 5: Read-Only Memory
      • 6: Memory With Moving Parts: "drives"
    • 14: Chapter 52: Principles of Digital Computing
      • 1: A Binary Adder
      • 2: Look-Up Tables
      • 3: Finite-State Machines
      • 4: Microprocessors
      • 5: Microprocessor Programming